0001085370.pdf	1
	Anchor 1	5
	Towards a Theory of Thinking	8
	Structure of the Book	10
	Part I: Perspectives on Thinking	10
	Part II: Components of Thinking	11
	Part III: Onto- and Phylogenetic Aspects	13
	Part IV: Language, Emotion, Culture	15
	Part V: Modeling and Neurobiological Approaches	17
	0001087460.pdf	26
	Chapter 1	1
	0001085342.pdf	27
	Problem Solving	27
	1 Introduction	28
	2 The Gestaltist Perspective	28
	3 Information Processing Theory and the Problem Space Hypothesis	33
	4 Challenge: Well-Structured Versus Ill-Structured Problems	36
	5 Challenge: Insight Problem Solving	39
	5.1 Definition of Insight	39
	5.2 Nothing Special Account	40
	5.3 Representational Change	41
	5.4 An Integrative Perspective	42
	6 Closing Remarks	43
	References	43
	0001085343.pdf	46
	Heuristic Bias, Conflict, and Rationality in Decision-Making	46
	1 Introduction	46
	2 Conflict Detection Studies	48
	2.1 To Detect or Not to Detect?	48
	2.2 To the Brain and Beyond	51
	2.3 The Effortless Nature of Conflict Detection	52
	3 Implications for the Rationality Debate	53
	4 Caveats and Conclusion	54
	References	55
	0001085344.pdf	57
	Analogical Processes in Human Thinking and Learning	57
	1 Introduction	57
	2 Analogical Processes	58
	2.1 Mapping	58
	2.2 Structural Alignment in Similarity and Analogy	60
	2.3 Systematicity	62
	2.4 Evaluation	63
	3 Learning	63
	3.1 Schema Abstraction	64
	3.2 Re-representation	65
	4 Analogical Retrieval	66
	5 Concluding Remarks	68
	References	68
	0001085345.pdf	71
	A Gestalt Perspective on the Psychology of Thinking	71
	1 Introduction	71
	2 Some Basic Concepts in Gestalt Theory	72
	3 Some Historical Background on Gestalt Theory	74
	4 The Gestalt Approach to Thinking	75
	5 Concluding Thoughts on the Gestalt Approach to Thinking	78
	References	79
	0001085346.pdf	81
	Thought and Reality	81
	1 Introduction	81
	2 A Brief Summary of a Novel Account of Time and Reality	83
	3 Human Thinking as an Adaptation to a Janus-Headed Reality	86
	References	92
	0001087251.pdf	93
	0001085347.pdf	94
	Categorization and Object Shape	94
	1 Introduction	94
	2 Form and Space	97
	3 Recognition and Categorization Performance Depend on Spatial Transformations	104
	4 Integrative Transformational Framework of Recognition and Categorization	110
	5 Open Questions and Outlook	113
	References	115
	0001085348.pdf	123
	Comparison	123
	1 Introduction	123
	2 Models of Similarity	125
	2.1 Geometric Models and Multidimensional Scaling	126
	2.2 Featural Models	128
	2.3 Similarities Between Geometric and Feature-Based Models	130
	2.4 Alignment-Based Models	132
	2.5 Transformational Models	135
	3 Conclusions	136
	References	137
	0001085349.pdf	142
	Causal Thinking	142
	1 Introduction	142
	2 Causal-Model Theory: Beyond Covariations	143
	2.1 Sensitivity to the Asymmetry of Causes and Effects	144
	2.2 Predicting Outcomes of Hypothetical Observations Versus Hypothetical Interventions	146
	2.2.1 Causal Reasoning in Nonhuman Animals	148
	2.3 Estimating Causal Parameters	149
	2.4 Limitations of Causal Reasoning	150
	3 Inducing Causal Structures	150
	4 Conclusion	151
	References	152
	0001085350.pdf	154
	Conditionals: Their Meaning and Their use in Reasoning	154
	1 Introduction	154
	2 The Meaning of Conditionals	155
	2.1 Mental Models	155
	2.2 The Evidence	158
	3 Inferences from Conditionals	159
	3.1 Mental Models	160
	3.2 The Probabilistic View	161
	3.3 The Evidence: Reasoning from Conditionals	163
	3.3.1 Patterns of Inference Endorsement	163
	3.3.2 Content Effects	164
	4 Conclusion	164
	References	164
	0001085351.pdf	166
	Thinking and Memory	166
	1 Introduction	166
	2 Definitions and Classifications of Memory	167
	3 Brain Structures Involved in Episodic Memory: A Brief Summary	170
	4 The Association Between Thinking and Memory in Brain Damaged Patients	173
	5 The Association Between Thinking and Memory in Neuroimaging Investigations	174
	6 General Considerations	175
	References	176
	0001085352.pdf	180
	Perception and the Brain	180
	1 Introduction	181
	2 Binocular Rivalry Experiments	181
	3 Extracellular Recording in the Visual Cortex	183
	4 Rivalry Related Tasks	190
	5 Things We Learn and Things We Do Not Learn	191
	6 Conclusion	193
	References	194
	0001087248.pdf	195
	0001085353.pdf	196
	A Developmental Perspective on Modularity	196
	1 Introduction	196
	2 Modularity, Evolution and Development	197
	3 Gradual Developmental Process of Modularisation	198
	4 A Concrete Example of Progressive Modularisation: Face Processing in Typically and Atypically Developing Populations	200
	5 Concluding Thoughts	201
	References	202
	0001085354.pdf	205
	Theory of Mind	205
	1 Introduction	205
	2 Development of a Theory of Mind	206
	3 Theories	208
	4 Neural Correlates	209
	5 Theory of Mind and Language	210
	6 Theory of Mind in Other Species and Robots	211
	References	213
	0001085355.pdf	218
	The Development of Metacognitive Competencies	218
	1 Introduction	218
	2 Classic Research on the Development of Metamemory	220
	2.1 Declarative Metamemory	220
	2.2 Procedural Metamemory	220
	2.3 Metamemory–Memory Relations	221
	3 Development of Metacognitive Knowledge and “Theory of Mind”	221
	3.1 Assessment of Children’s “Theory-of-Mind”	222
	3.2 Links Between Theory of Mind and Metacognitive Knowledge	222
	4 New Evidence Concerning Metacognitive Development in Childhood and Adolescence	223
	4.1 The Development of Self-Monitoring and Self-Control	224
	4.2 Monitoring Skills in Children	224
	4.3 The Relation Between Monitoring and Control Processes in Children	225
	5 The Importance of Metacognition for Education	226
	References	227
	0001085356.pdf	230
	Understanding Apes to Understand Humans: The Case of Object–Object Relations	230
	1 Introduction	230
	2 Why Study Animal Cognition?	231
	3 Comparing Human and Animal Cognition	232
	4 Object–Object Relations and Causal Knowledge	234
	4.1 Inferential Reasoning	234
	4.2 Two Additional Domains: Weight and Support	236
	4.3 Tool-Use	238
	5 The Nature of Causal and Arbitrary Relations	240
	5.1 On the Epigenesis of Causal Relations	241
	6 Conclusion and Future Directions	243
	References	243
	0001087249.pdf	246
	0001085357.pdf	247
	Socializing Cognition	247
	1 Distributing Cognition Across People and the World	248
	1.1 Distributed Representations	248
	1.2 Coupled Systems	249
	2 Emerging Cognition: Social Brains and Social Norms	251
	2.1 Evolutionary Approaches	251
	2.2 Cultural Approaches	252
	3 Aligning Cognition: Joint Control of Perception–Action Links	253
	3.1 Ideomotor Theories and the Mirror System	253
	3.1.1 Mimicry	254
	3.1.2 Imitation	255
	3.2 Joint Action	256
	3.2.1 Co-representation	256
	3.2.2 Coordination	257
	4 Conclusion and Outlook	258
	References	260
	0001085358.pdf	265
	Thinking and Language	265
	1 Semiotic Bridges	265
	2 Levels of Language Structure	267
	3 Five Logophonic Pillars	268
	4 Language and Culture	272
	References	273
	0001085359.pdf	274
	Thinking and Emotion: Affective Modulation of Cognitive Processing Modes	274
	1 Introduction	275
	2 Antagonistic Adaptive Functions and Complementary Modes of Thinking	276
	3 Theoretical Views on the Affective Modulation of Cognitive Processes	277
	4 Selective Review of Evidence for the Affective Modulation of Complementary Modes of Thinking	278
	4.1 Affective Modulation of Creative Problem Solving and Generative Thought	279
	4.2 Affective Modulation of Semantic Associations	280
	4.3 Affective Modulation of the Scope of Selective Attention	282
	4.4 Affective Modulation of Cognitive Control	283
	5 Conclusions and Open Questions	285
	References	287
	0001085360.pdf	291
	Cultural Differences in Thinking Styles	291
	1 Introduction	291
	2 Cultural Differences in Perceptual and Attentional Processing	292
	3 Neural Basis of Cultural Specific Cognitive Styles	296
	4 Conclusion	299
	References	300
	0001087250.pdf	301
	0001085361.pdf	302
	Natural Selection in the Brain	302
	1 Introduction	303
	2 How Could Neuronal Natural Selection Work?	306
	2.1 Synapses	307
	2.2 Groups of Synapses	310
	2.3 Patterns of Bistable Neuronal Activity	314
	3 Natural Selection in Comparison with Other (Neuronal) Stochastic Search Algorithms	317
	3.1 Neuronal Selectionism	317
	3.2 Reinforcement Learning Algorithms	320
	3.3 Other Action Selection Approaches	321
	4 How is an Initial Population of Neuronal Representations Chosen?	322
	5 On What Basis Are Neuronal Replicators Selected?	322
	6 How Can Variability Be Structured?	323
	7 Cognitive Roles for Neuronal Replicators	325
	7.1 Causal Inference by Topology Copying	325
	7.2 Heuristic Search in Insight Problems and Working Memory Tasks	326
	7.3 Memory Consolidation	327
	8 Conclusions	328
	Acknowledgement	328
	References	328
	0001085362.pdf	334
	Value and Self-Referential Control: Necessary Ingredients for the Autonomous Development of Flexible Intelligence	334
	1 Introduction	334
	2 Value and Self-Referential Control	336
	2.1 Elements of Innate Knowledge	337
	2.2 Self-Organization of Acquired Knowledge	339
	2.3 Active Exploration, Expectation and Surprise	341
	2.4 Self-Referential Control	342
	3 Conclusions	343
	References	344
	0001085363.pdf	347
	Cortical Connectivity: The Infrastructure of Thoughts	347
	1 Thinking: The Associational Nature of Thinking	347
	2 Neuronal Assemblies: An Operational Definition	348
	3 Cortico–Cortical Connections: Axonal Geometries	349
	4 Physiological Analysis of a Visual, Bihemispheric Neuronal Assembly: The Role of Axonal Geometries	350
	5 Implications of Principles of Brain Organization for Thinking: Cortico–Cortical Connections May Constrain and Channel Bot	352
	References	354
	0001085364.pdf	357
	Models as Tools to Aid Thinking	357
	1 Introduction	357
	2 Models and Thinking Economy: What Models Can Do for Us	358
	3 Major Dimensions of Modeling	360
	4 Modeling and Feature Selection	361
	4.1 The Power of Mappings	362
	4.2 Linear Versus Nonlinear Models	364
	5 Beyond Mappings: Dynamical Systems	366
	6 Some Examples of Dynamical systems	368
	7 From Deterministic to Stochastic Models	371
	8 Coping with Uncertainty	372
	9 Optimal Inference	373
	10 From Modeling to Bayesian Learning	375
	11 Maximum Likelihood Principle	376
	12 Learning, Optimization and Risk Minimization	377
	13 Bias, Complexity, and Generalization	378
	14 Limits of Modeling	380
	15 Concluding Remarks	382
	References	383