Educational Neuroscience	5
	Copyright	6
	Dedication	7
	Contents	9
	List of Contributors	11
	Preface	13
	Foreword: Imaging the Future	14
	Chapter 1Introduction	19
	The Nature of the Discipline	19
	Three Disciplines: Education, Psychology, Neuroscience	20
	Phase 1. Education and psychology	20
	Phase 2. Psychology and neuroscience	22
	Phase 3. Emergence of educational neuroscience	23
	Issues and Problems in Developing Educational Neuroscience	25
	References	29
	Chapter 2Neuroimaging Methods	31
	Electroencephalography and Event-Related Potentials	31
	Principles of EEG recording and averaging ERPs	32
	Making sense of ERP components	36
	ERPs and development	38
	Strengths and limitations of the ERP technique with developmental populations	40
	Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS)	42
	General principles and applications of NIRS	43
	Studies of development using NIRS	45
	Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)	46
	Background and safety	46
	Basic components of MRI	47
	Basic physics of MRI	49
	How are MR images generated?	50
	Varieties of MR images	51
	The challenges of studying children using MRI	54
	Studies of development using MRI	54
	Other Neuroimaging Techniques	56
	Conclusions	56
	References	56
	Further Reading	63
	Chapter 3Computational Modeling of Learning and Teaching	64
	Introduction	64
	Computational Models of Cognition	66
	The use of models to understand mechanisms of learning	66
	General principles and aims of computational models of learning	67
	Examples of symbolic and subsymbolic cognitive models: ACT-R and artificial neural networks	70
	An example of cognitive modeling in educational neuroscience: individual differences in language development	72
	The broader perspective: neuroconstructivism and education	78
	The future of cognitive modeling in education	80
	Computers as Teaching Systems	81
	Educational models of teaching and learning	81
	Computational modeling of teaching and learning: intelligent tutoring systems	83
	Computational modeling: adaptive microworlds	84
	The computational modeling of pedagogy	85
	An example of an adaptive microworld	87
	Contrasting perspectives on “feedback”	88
	Conclusion	91
	Acknowledgements	91
	References	92
	Further Reading	94
	Chapter 4Genetics for Education	95
	Genetics for Education: What is in the Toolkit?	102
	Quantitative Genetics for Education	102
	Estimating the relative contributions of genes and environments to variation in educationally relevant traits	104
	Etiology of sex differences	105
	The contribution of the teacher and the classroom to individual variation	107
	Conceptualizing learning disability	108
	Etiology of the links across abilities and ages	109
	Understanding of the role of the environment	114
	Molecular Genetics for Education	118
	The QTL perspective	118
	Genome-wide association studies (GWAS)	119
	Cross-Cultural Behavioral Genetic Research	120
	Conclusion	122
	Acknowledgements	122
	References	123
	Further Reading	127
	Chapter 5Research Methods in Educational Psychology	128
	Different Types of Approach to Educational Research	128
	Deciding What to Measure	129
	Behavioral measures	129
	Report measures	135
	Demographic and environmental measures	137
	Choosing a Study Design	138
	Sampling issues	138
	Quasi-experimental designs	139
	Experimental designs	141
	Nonexperimental designs	144
	Conclusion	147
	References	148
	Further Reading	151
	Chapter 6Language Development	152
	Language in Infancy and Early Childhood 0–5 years	154
	The impact of intrinsic factors on language development	154
	The impact of socioeconomic status on language development	157
	Language Development in the Primary-School Years 5–12	160
	The specialization of neural systems for language	161
	Children with specific language impairments	163
	Alternative developmental pathways: the case of TZ	168
	Language Development in Adolescence	171
	Language behavior in adolescence	172
	The neural substrates of adolescent language	172
	Educational neuroscience in adolescence	173
	Sensitive Periods in Language Development	174
	Defining sensitive periods	174
	Sensitive periods for foreign language learning	175
	The impact of early deprivation	177
	Summary and Conclusion	178
	References	179
	Further Reading	189
	Chapter 7Literacy Development	190
	Language in the Brain	191
	Inferring cerebral function through observed dysfunction	191
	To read and read not…	193
	Neuroimaging Studies of Reading	198
	What is the difference in brain activation between dyslexic readers and skilled readers?	202
	Educational neuroscience and dyslexia	203
	Individual Differences	210
	Learning to Read and Failing to Read in Different Languages	212
	Conclusion	213
	References	214
	Chapter 8Mathematical Development	219
	Introduction	219
	Neural roadmap	220
	Theoretical roadmap	221
	Two important effects	223
	Mathematical Development	225
	Infancy and childhood (0–5)	225
	Primary and middle childhood (5–12)	226
	Lifelong learning (adulthood)	227
	Embodied Understanding of Numbers and Arithmetic	228
	Individual Differences in Mathematical Achievement	231
	Primary and middle childhood (5–12)	232
	Secondary school and adolescence (12–18)	232
	Lifelong learning (adulthood)	233
	Dyscalculia	233
	Dyscalculia as a core deficit in processing numerosities	234
	Dyscalculia in primary and middle childhood (5–12)	234
	Lifelong learning	237
	Educating the Mathematical Brain	237
	Methods of instruction	238
	Individual differences	239
	Future Directions	244
	Negative numbers	244
	Place value	245
	Algebra	246
	Neural stimulation	247
	References	248
	Chapter 9The Development and Application of Scientific Reasoning	255
	What is Scientific Reasoning?	255
	Historical Approaches to the Study of Domain-General and Domain-Specific Scientific Reasoning	256
	Causal Reasoning	258
	Deductive Reasoning	267
	Analogical Reasoning	273
	Summary	277
	Future Directions	278
	References	279
	Further Reading	285
	Chapter 10Social Development	286
	Introduction	286
	Early Development of the Social Brain	286
	Face Processing	287
	Gaze Processing	289
	Joint Attention	291
	Action Observation	293
	Social Brain Development in Childhood and Adolescence	296
	Face Processing	297
	Theory of Mind Development	301
	Online Mentalizing Usage is Still Developing in Mid-adolescence	303
	Social Evaluation: Acceptance and Rejection	303
	Implications for Education	306
	Acknowledgments	308
	References	309
	Further Reading	314
	Chapter 11Emotional Development	315
	Introduction	315
	Emotion and education	316
	Preschool Years	317
	Temperament	317
	Emotion regulation	319
	Middle Years	321
	Social, emotional, and behavioral difficulties	321
	Autistic spectrum disorders	321
	Behavioral problems	322
	Secondary School and Adolescence	327
	Motivation	327
	Psychological well-being and mental-health concerns	329
	Lifelong Learning	331
	The emotional experiences of undergraduates	331
	Stress as an obstacle in lifelong learning	332
	Conclusion	334
	References	334
	Further Reading	342
	Chapter 12Attention and Executive Control	343
	Defining Prefrontal Executive Functions in Children	343
	Structure of executive function	344
	Neural bases	344
	Academic achievement	345
	Basic Components of Executive Function: Development, Brain Bases, and Links to Academic Achievement	346
	Inhibition	347
	Relation to academic skills	349
	Working memory	350
	Links to academic skills in school-aged children	352
	Shifting	353
	Links to academic skills	354
	Are Links Between Academic Skills, Executive Functions, and Attention Related to Overlapping Brain Systems?	355
	Effects of Training	355
	Training specific executive skills	357
	Complex activity-based training	358
	Summary and Conclusions	359
	References	360
	Further Reading	366
	Afterword	367
	Introduction	367
	What Has Changed for the Better?	368
	The Methods of Educational Neuroscience	371
	Educational Neuroscience and Subject Matter	372
	One Bridge or Two: What Difference Does It Make?	373
	Neuroprognosis	375
	Conclusion	378
	References	379
	Index	382