Cover Page	1
	Learning and Cognition in Education	4
	Copyright Page	5
	Preface	6
	Contents	8
	Contributors	12
	Learning and Cognition: Introduction	14
	Cognition: Overview and Recent Trends	16
	The Cognitive Revolution	16
	The Birth of Cognitive Psychology	17
	Overview of Research in Cognition	18
	Perception and Attention	18
	Language Acquisition and Reading	18
	Memory	19
	Comprehension and Conceptual Understanding	19
	Problem Solving and Reasoning	19
	Metacognition	19
	Recent Trends	20
	Transfer	20
	Spatial Thinking and Gesture	20
	Culture and Cognition	20
	Collaboration	20
	Bibliography	21
	Neuroscience Bases of Learning	22
	Glossary	22
	Beyond Neuromyths: Mind, Brain, and Education Is a Cross-Disciplinary Field	22
	New Neuroscience Methods Bring New Information and New Challenges for Interpretation	23
	Educational Skills are Supported by Specialized Neural Networks	24
	Neural Networks for Mathematics	24
	Neural Networks for Reading	24
	Domain-General and Emotion-Related Processes Enable Learning	25
	Emotion and Social Processing	25
	Memory and Attention	26
	Back to the Big Picture: Mind, Brain, and Education are Becoming Usefully Connected	27
	Bibliography	27
	Further Reading	28
	Relevant Websites	28
	Learning in a Cross-Cultural Perspective	29
	Glossary	29
	Intellectual Styles as Learning Processes	29
	What are Intellectual Styles?	29
	Intellectual Styles and Culture	29
	Learning approaches	30
	Field dependence/independence	30
	Thinking styles	30
	Academic Achievement as Learning Outcome	31
	Research Centered on Asian Students	31
	Cultural values	31
	Markus and Kitayama's concept of self-construal	31
	Sue and Okazaki's relative functionalism	32
	Research Centered on Black and/or Hispanic Students	32
	Social class, wealth, and capital	32
	Ogbu's two types of minorities	33
	Institutional practice	33
	Conclusions and Future Directions	33
	On Intellectual Styles	34
	On Academic Achievement	34
	Bibliography	34
	Further Reading	35
	Cognition and Learning: Theory	36
	Connectionism and Learning	38
	Glossary	38
	Introduction	39
	Importance of Modeling	39
	Modern Connectionism	39
	Relations to the Old Connectionism	41
	Models of Reading	42
	Models of Mathematics	43
	Multiplication	43
	Primality	44
	Educational Relevance	45
	Bibliography	45
	Further Reading	46
	Relevant Website	46
	Self-Regulated Learning and Socio-Cognitive Theory	47
	Glossary	47
	What Is Self-Regulated Learning?	47
	Models of SRL	48
	Boekaert's Model of Adaptable Learning	48
	Winne and Hadwin's Model of Recursive Self- Regulation	48
	Zimmerman's Social-Cognitive Model	48
	Commonalities across Models of SRL	49
	Task Environment	49
	Agency	49
	Goals	49
	Monitoring	49
	Memory and Reasoning	49
	Sociocognitive Accounts of SRL	49
	When is Cognition Social?	49
	Sociocognitive Learning and SRL	50
	Alternatives to Sociocognitive Theories of SRL	50
	Sociocultural influences on SRL	50
	Coregulation	50
	Research on SRL and Sociocognitive Models	51
	Feedback and SRL	51
	Modeling and SRL	51
	Scaffolding and SRL	51
	Further Reading	52
	Vygotsky and Recent Developments	53
	Genetic Analysis	53
	Mediated Nature of Human Mental Functioning	54
	Social Origins of Individual Mental Functioning	55
	Conclusion	57
	Bibliography	57
	Further Reading	58
	Theoretical Bases of Computer Supported Learning	59
	Introduction	59
	Background	59
	Research Approaches in CSCL	60
	Systemic Approach	60
	Dialogic Approach	61
	Design-Based Research	62
	Pedagogical Design	62
	Technology Design	62
	Open issues and Directions for Further Work	63
	Acknowledgments	63
	Bibliography	63
	Further Reading	64
	Personal Epistemology in Education	65
	What Is Personal Epistemology?	65
	How Does Personal Epistemology Develop?	65
	What Are the Dimensions of Personal Epistemology?	65
	Is Personal Epistemology Domain General, Domain Specific, or Both?	66
	The Role of Personal Epistemology in Student Motivation, Cognition, and Performance	67
	How Can Personal Epistemology Be Assessed?	68
	Educational Implications	69
	Bibliography	70
	Further Reading	71
	Learning in a Sociocultural Perspective	72
	Introduction	72
	The Sociocultural Approach	72
	Mediation and Cultural Tools	73
	Learning and Development: the Zone of Proximal Development	74
	Language, Learning, and the Formation of Mind	75
	Vygotsky and the Development of Education	75
	Bibliography	76
	Further Reading	76
	Situative View of Learning	77
	Glossary	77
	Apprenticeship and Identity	78
	Educational Applications of the Situative View	79
	Bibliography	80
	Further Reading	81
	Cognition: Recent Trends	82
	Attention in Cognition and Early Learning	84
	Attention in Infancy	84
	Selective Attention	84
	Phases of Attention	85
	Behavioral Phases	85
	Attention: Brain Networks	86
	Aspects of Attention	86
	Novelty	86
	Visual Recognition Memory	87
	Face Processing	87
	Attention and Learning	87
	The Directed-Attention Model	87
	Dyadic Attention	88
	Triadic Attention/Joint Attention	88
	Understanding Intentions	89
	Compensatory Systems and Plasticity	89
	Conclusion	89
	Bibliography	89
	Further Reading	90
	Cognition and Emotion	91
	Introduction	91
	The Problem of Definition	92
	Cognition as a Cause of Emotion	93
	Emotion as a Cause of Cognition	94
	Conclusion	96
	Summary	96
	Bibliography	97
	Further Reading	97
	Memory	98
	Glossary	98
	Varieties of Human Memory	99
	Metaphors and Models of Memory - Strategies of Research	100
	The Seven Sins of Memory	100
	Memory in Everyday Contexts	101
	False Autobiographical Memories	102
	Memory in the Classroom	102
	The Future for Memory Research	103
	Bibliography	103
	Further Reading	104
	Intelligence	105
	Glossary	105
	Theories of Intelligence	105
	Implicit Theories	105
	Psychometric Theories	106
	Cognitive-Contextual Theories	107
	Biological Theories	108
	Development of Intelligence	108
	The Theory of Jean Piaget	108
	The Theory of Lev Vygotsky	108
	Measuring Intelligence	108
	Early Historical Background	108
	The Intelligence Quotient Test	109
	The Distribution of IQ Scores	109
	The Heritability and Malleability of Intelligence	109
	Further Reading	110
	Concept Learning	112
	Theories of Concept Representation and Learning	112
	The Classical View	112
	The Probabilistic View	112
	Typicality: Central tendency versus ideality	112
	Prototype versus exemplar theories	113
	The Theory View	113
	Domain Specificity	114
	Concept Learning in the Domain of Biology	114
	Concept Learning in the Domain of Mathematics	115
	Conclusions	116
	Further Reading	116
	Problem Solving and Human Expertise	117
	Glossary	117
	Methods	117
	Expert Problem Solving: Major Findings	118
	Problem Categorization	119
	Construction of a Representation	120
	Application of Problem-Solving Procedures	121
	Solution Evaluation and Storage	121
	Summary	121
	Acquisition of Expertise	121
	Current Directions	123
	Conclusions	123
	Acknowledgments	123
	Bibliography	123
	Further Reading	124
	Problem Solving and Reasoning	125
	Definitions	125
	Types of Problems	125
	Cognitive Processes and Types of Knowledge in Problem Solving	126
	Rigidity in Thinking	127
	Problem-Solving Transfer	127
	The Distinction between Productive and Reproductive Thinking	127
	The Nature of Insight	128
	Problem Space and Search Processes	128
	Problem Solving in Realistic Situations	129
	Bibliography	129
	Knowledge Domains and Domain Learning	131
	Glossary	131
	The Development of Disciplines	132
	Domain Learning	134
	Reading	135
	Writing	135
	History	136
	Mathematics	136
	Science	137
	Concluding Thoughts	138
	Bibliography	138
	Further Reading	139
	Metacognition	141
	Glossary	141
	Definitional Issues	141
	Origins of Metacognition	142
	Methods for Assessing Metacognition	142
	Verbal Reports	142
	Online Processing Measures	143
	Judgments of Learning and Predictions of Performance	143
	Metacognition in Specific Academic Domains	143
	Metacognition in Reading	143
	Studies of metacognitive knowledge	143
	Studies of comprehension monitoring	144
	Studies aimed at fostering metacognitive skills	144
	Metacognition in Writing	144
	Metacognition in Mathematics	145
	Metacognition in Science	145
	Summary and Conclusions	145
	Further Reading	146
	Learning: Recent Trends	148
	Learning Strategies	150
	Glossary	150
	Historical Overview	150
	Types of Learning Strategies	151
	Rehearsal Strategies	151
	Elaboration Strategies	151
	Organization Strategies	152
	Self-Regulation Learning Strategies	152
	Metacognitive Strategies - Comprehension Monitoring	152
	Need for a Learning Strategies Repertoire	153
	Domain-Independent Strategies Versus Domain-Dependent Strategies	153
	Learning Strategies in Models of Strategic and Self-Regulated Learning and College Readiness	153
	Model of Strategic Learning	153
	Assessment of Student Learning Strategies	154
	Purposes for Assessment	154
	Approaches and Instruments Used to Assess Students' Learning Strategies Knowledge and Use	155
	Teaching of Learning Strategies	155
	Concluding Statement	155
	Bibliography	155
	Further Reading	156
	Relevant Websites	156
	Technology and Learning	157
	Glossary	157
	Spread of Technology Within Schools	157
	School Uses of Technology for Learning	158
	Typical Uses	158
	Subject-Specific Uses of ICT	159
	Reading	159
	Writing	159
	Mathematics	159
	Second language learning	160
	Science	160
	Rapidly Growing Uses	160
	Open-source online resources and curriculum materials	160
	Online learning and virtual schools	161
	Frequent assessment and individualization of learning	161
	Emerging Uses	162
	Web 2.0	162
	Immersive environments and games	162
	Interactive classroom communication systems	163
	Evidence of the Effects of ICT on Teaching and Learning	163
	Effective Implementation of Technology-Supported Learning	164
	Use of Technology for Learning Outside of School	164
	Conclusion	165
	Bibliography	165
	Further Reading	166
	Learning as Inquiry	167
	Learning as Inquiry	167
	Contemporary Classrooms and Inquiry Learning	168
	Relationships between Professional Inquiry and Inquiry Learning in Schools	168
	Implementing Inquiry in Classrooms	169
	Inquiry Cycles	169
	Challenges for Inquiry Learning in Classrooms	170
	Bibliography	171
	Further Reading	171
	Relevant Website	172
	Cooperative Learning	173
	Theoretical Perspectives on Cooperative Learning	173
	Four Major Theoretical Perspectives on Cooperative Learning and Achievement	174
	Motivational Perspectives	174
	Empirical support for the motivational perspective	175
	Social Cohesion Perspective	175
	Empirical support for the social cohesion perspective	176
	Cognitive Perspectives	176
	Developmental perspectives	176
	Empirical evidence for the developmental perspective	177
	Cognitive elaboration perspectives	177
	Empirical evidence for the cognitive elaboration perspective	177
	Structuring Group Interactions	177
	Reconciling the Four Perspectives	177
	Acknowledgment	178
	Bibliography	178
	Learning - Language, Reading, and Writing	180
	Language and Literacy in Educational Settings	182
	Glossary	182
	How Is Language Learned?	182
	The Behaviorist Perspective on Language Learning	183
	The Cognitive Perspective on Language Learning	183
	Connectionism	184
	Constructivist approaches	184
	Sociocognitive approaches	184
	The Sociocultural Perspective on Language Learning	184
	The Vygotskian tradition	184
	Sociolinguistic approaches emphasizing language socialization	185
	Ethnographic studies	185
	Comparing the Cognitive and Sociocultural Perspectives	186
	How is the task of language learning conceptualized?	186
	What is the relative emphasis of innate versus acquired aspects of language learning?	186
	What is the role of the individual versus the social or collective in language learning?	186
	Which aspects of language learning are focused on most?	187
	What is the Role of Language in Literacy Acquisition?	187
	Language in Literacy: The Cognitive Perspective	187
	Language in Literacy: The Sociocultural Perspective	188
	The Role of Language in Literacy - The Two Perspectives Compared	188
	The Role of Language in Learning Subject Matter: Academic Language	189
	Academic Language in Cognitive versus Sociocultural Perspectives	189
	Academic language in the cognitive/psycholinguistic perspective	189
	Academic language in the sociocultural perspective	190
	What is academic languageSummary	190
	Concluding Comments	190
	Bibliography	190
	Further Reading	191
	Neuroscience of Reading	192
	Glossary	192
	Introduction	192
	The Development of Reading	192
	Neuroimaging Studies of Learning to Read	193
	Neuroimaging Studies of Developmental Dyslexia	194
	The Networks Recruited for Reading	194
	Developmental Differences in the Time Course of Neural Activation	195
	The Neural Effects of Remediation	195
	Conclusions	196
	Bibliography	196
	Learning to Read	198
	Essential Underpinnings of Reading	198
	Language and Listening Comprehension	198
	Forms and Uses of Written Language	198
	Knowledge of the Written Symbol System and of Print Concepts	198
	Motivation: Becoming Enthusiastic About Reading and Writing	199
	Instruction That Develops Essential Underpinnings of Reading	199
	Beginning of Formal Reading Instruction	199
	Identifying Printed Words	199
	Reading Comprehension	201
	Reading Fluency	202
	Levels of Reading	202
	Summary	203
	Further Reading	204
	Reading Comprehension: Reading for Learning	205
	Defining Reading Comprehension	205
	Texts	205
	Readers	205
	Task	206
	Integrating Information about Reader, Text, and Task	206
	A Taxonomy for Comprehension	207
	Theories of Reading Comprehension	208
	Instruction in Reading Comprehension	209
	Intervention with Struggling Comprehenders	209
	Summary	209
	Bibliography	209
	Further Reading	210
	Relevant Websites	210
	First Language Acquisition	211
	Glossary	211
	The Nature of Human Language	211
	Techniques in Understanding Language Development	212
	Milestones in Speech and Language Development	212
	Pre-Linguistic Achievements	212
	Production and Understanding Prior to First Words	213
	The Nature of Early Word Production and Comprehension	213
	Combining Words into Utterances	214
	Later Acquisitions	215
	Cross-Linguistic Variation in Profiles of First-Language Acquisition	215
	Individual Variation	216
	Theories of Language Acquisition	216
	Developmental Language Disorders	216
	Bibliography	216
	Further Reading	216
	Relevant Website	217
	Second Language Learning	218
	Theories of Second Language Acquisition	218
	Contrastive Linguistics	218
	A Cognitive Approach to Second Language Acquisition	218
	Motivation	219
	Social Theory in SLA	219
	Interlanguage	220
	Acquisition and Variation	220
	Age and SLA	221
	Second-Language Learning and Foreign- Language Learning	221
	Second-Language Learning for School	222
	Bibliography	223
	Further Reading	224
	Writing, Early	225
	Writing as a Multimodal Phenomenon	225
	Disciplinary and Theoretical Roots	225
	Stages of Early-Writing Development	226
	Prephonetic writing	227
	Scribbling and symbols with no similarity with letters	227
	Letters in rows that represent words	227
	Global writing	228
	Semiphonemic writing	228
	Phonemic writing	228
	Writing with conventional orthography	229
	Individual Variations	229
	Universality of stages	229
	Variations within cultures	229
	Variations across languages	231
	Summary	231
	Bibliography	232
	Further Reading	232
	Writing, Advanced	233
	Introduction	233
	1960s to 1980s	233
	Transitions	234
	1990s to the Present	235
	Conclusion	237
	Bibliography	237
	Further Reading	238
	Relevant Websites	238
	Learning in Contexts and Throughout the Ages	240
	Gender and Schooling	242
	Glossary	242
	Gender Compared to Sex Differences	242
	Shifts in Focus of Work on Gender and Learning	243
	Gender-Equity Reforms and Reviews	245
	Single Sex and Coeducation and Learning	245
	Gender in Interaction with Other Factors	245
	Current and Emerging Issues	246
	Bibliography	246
	Further Reading	247
	Organizational Learning	248
	The Field of Organizational Learning	248
	Dimensions of Organizational Learning	248
	Levels of Analysis	249
	Organizational Learning as Change and/or Stability	249
	Content and Processes of Organizational Learning	250
	Conditions and Practices of Organizational Learning	251
	Power and Politics	252
	Bibliography	253
	Further Reading	253
	The Adult Development of Cognition and Learning	254
	Introduction	254
	Theories of Life-Span Development	254
	Multidirectionality in Cognition and Intellectual Function	254
	Selectivity	255
	Self-Regulation	255
	Learning through Adulthood	256
	Memory and Aging	256
	Learning from Text	256
	Understanding words	256
	Textbase processing	256
	Situation model	257
	Discourse structures and context	257
	Cognitive Reserve: Lifelong Effects of Education	257
	Differential Developmental Trajectories as a Function of Education	257
	Cognitive and Neural Plasticity	258
	Conclusion	258
	Further Reading	259
	Lifelong Learning	260
	From Social Optimism to Economic Survival?	260
	Initial Education as a Platform for Learning through Life	261
	Theoretical Perspectives	261
	Institutional Structures for Lifelong Learning	263
	Conclusions	264
	Bibliography	265
	Further Reading	266
	Classroom Discourse and Student Learning	267
	Glossary	267
	Definition/Scope	267
	Differences with Everyday Conversation	267
	Asymmetric Roles	268
	Three-Part Sequence	268
	Effects on Opportunities for Student Participation	269
	Socialization into Academic Registers	269
	Classroom Speech Events	269
	Modeling	270
	Scaffolding	270
	Recasts	270
	Learning Specialized Academic Registers	270
	Teacher Talk and Particular Populations	271
	Second-Language Learners	271
	Speakers of Nonstandard Dialects	271
	Gender and Participation	271
	Conclusion/Evaluation	272
	Further Reading	272
	Relevant Websites	272
	Learning Outside of School	273
	Introduction	273
	Formal and Informal Learning and Knowledge	273
	Written and Oral Practices	274
	General versus Specific Learning	275
	Focus on Representations versus Focus on Meaning	275
	Thought versus Action	277
	The Places and Processes of Learning	278
	Conclusion	278
	Bibliography	279
	Further Reading	279
	Subject Index	280