Foreword	6
	References	10
	Contents	12
	Contributors	16
	About the Contributors	20
	Part I Cognition and New Science of Learning	36
	1 New Digital Media and Their Potential Cognitive Impact on Youth Learning	37
	Introduction	37
	Methods	38
	Findings and Discussion	39
	The Changing Youth Environment	40
	Demographic Trends	40
	The Rise in Extracurricular Commitments	40
	NDM's Impact on Youth Learning	41
	Changes in Student Attention	42
	Changes in Information Preferences	44
	Changes in Student Research Practices	46
	Changes in the Student--Educator Relationship	49
	Changes in the Student--Student Relationship	51
	Conclusion	53
	References	10
	2 Group Cognition as a Foundation for the New Scienceof Learning	57
	The Need for a New Science of Group Cognition	58
	The Construct of Group Cognition	60
	The Group Unit of Description	61
	A Model of the New Science	63
	The Nature of the New Science	65
	Group Cognition in a Virtual Math Team (Research Question)	65
	Non-laboratory Experimental Design (Validity)	66
	Data Collection at the Group Level of Description (Unit of Analysis)	67
	Instrumentation and Data Formats (Objectivity)	68
	Collaborative Data Sessions (Reliability)	70
	Describing Group Practices (Generalizability)	72
	The Foundational Role of Group Cognition	73
	References	75
	3 An Embodied/Grounded Cognition Perspective on Educational Technology	79
	Grounded/Embodied Cognition	79
	Gaining Embodied/Grounded Experiences from Video Games	80
	Learning from Graphical Computer Simulations with Movement and Animation	81
	Creating Video Games to Embody Understanding	83
	Conclusions	85
	References	85
	4 Features of Computerized Multimedia Environments that Support Vicarious Learning Processes	87
	Environmental Features Supporting Vicarious Comprehension and Learning	88
	Focus on Comprehension	88
	Focus on Learning	93
	Overt Activities Designed to Support Vicarious Learning Processes	100
	Summary and Conclusions	105
	References	107
	5 Human Memory and the New Science of Learning	112
	Introduction	112
	Cognitive Perspectives on Learning	113
	Principles of Cognitive Learning Theory	114
	Learning and Development Depend on Learners' Experiences	114
	Learners Are Mentally Active in Their Attempts to Make Sense of Their Experiences	114
	Learners Construct Knowledge	115
	Knowledge that Is Constructed Depends on Learners' Prior Knowledge	115
	Learning Is Enhanced in a Social Environment	115
	Learning Requires Practice and Feedback	116
	A Model of Human Memory	116
	Memory Stores	117
	Sensory Memory	117
	Working Memory	117
	A Model of Working Memory	118
	Limitations of Working Memory	119
	Reducing Cognitive Load: Accommodating the Limitations of Working Memory	121
	Long-Term Memory	122
	Representing Declarative Knowledge in Long-Term Memory	123
	Representing Procedural Knowledge in Long-Term Memory	125
	Cognitive Processes	126
	Attention	127
	Attracting and Maintaining Attention	127
	Perception	127
	Encoding	128
	Imagery	129
	Organization	130
	Schema Activation	130
	Elaboration	131
	The Importance of Cognitive Activity	132
	Forgetting	133
	Forgetting as Interference	133
	Forgetting as Retrieval Failure	134
	Metacognition: Knowledge and Control of Cognitive Processes	134
	Putting the Memory Model into Perspective	135
	Summary	136
	References	137
	6 Metacognitive Control of Learning and Remembering	141
	Introduction	141
	Interplay Between Metacognitive Monitoring and Control	142
	Monitoring of Ongoing Learning	142
	Judgments of Learning as an Index of Current Learning	143
	Monitoring of Retrieval Processes and Control of Output	143
	The Study of Metacognitive Control	144
	Effectiveness of Metacognitive Control	144
	Self-Pacing of Study	144
	Devising Study Schedules	145
	Selection of Items for Study and Re-study	146
	Strategic Use of Self-Testing	147
	Accommodating Study to Anticipated Test Conditions	147
	Retrieval Strategies	147
	Improving Metacognitive Control	148
	Improving Monitoring	148
	Improving Control at Encoding Via Direct Instruction	148
	Improving Control at Encoding via Experience	149
	Improving Control at Retrieval Via Direct Instruction	153
	Improving Control at Retrieval Via Experience	155
	Role of Information Technology	156
	Implementing Metacognitive Control	156
	Training Metacognitive Control	157
	Summary	157
	References	158
	7 Ethnic Differences on Students' ApproachesINTbreak	164
	Achievement Differences Among Subgroups in Higher Education: Social and Cultural Factors	165
	Secondary Effects: Opportunity to Learn and Prior Knowledge	168
	Cognitive and Motivational Factors in Learning and Achievement	168
	Summary and Purpose of the Study	172
	Method	173
	Research Context	173
	Subjects	173
	Measures	174
	Procedure	175
	Data Analysis	176
	Results	176
	Reliabilities, Descriptive Statistics, and Intercorrelations	176
	Multi-Group Confirmatory Factor Analysis	179
	Structural Equation Model Analysis	180
	Summary Findings	184
	Discussion and Conclusion	184
	References	187
	8 Intuitions, Conceptions and Frameworks: Modelling Student Cognition in Science Learning	193
	Modelling Student Cognition in Relation to Academic Learning	193
	Student Learning Difficulties in Science Subjects	194
	Examples of Students' Ideas	195
	The Uncertain Nature of Students' Alternative Ideas	196
	Considering Cognitive Development and Conceptual Learning	198
	Spontaneous Learning	198
	The Cognitive and the Conceptual	199
	Conceptual Development	201
	Drawing upon Cognitive Science	201
	Folk Psychology and Educational Research	202
	Thinking, Knowing and Ideas	202
	Memory	203
	Situated Knowledge and Distributed Cognition	204
	Perception and Conception	205
	Constructing Knowledge	206
	Conceptual Change	208
	Towards a Model of Cognition that Supports Research into Student Learning	209
	References	210
	9 An Analysis of Design Strategies for Creating Educational Experiences in Virtual Environments	213
	Introduction	213
	User-Centered Design	214
	Integrating Content	220
	Visual Representation of Content	224
	Motivation	227
	Conclusion	231
	References	232
	Part II Computers and New Science of Learning	234
	10 Redesigning Testing: Operationalizing the New Scienceof Learning	235
	Introduction: Testing	235
	Historical Preamble: The Broad Function of Testing and the Birth of a Specific Testing Industry	237
	Reflecting on Testing: The Need for a Theory of Learning and Clarity About Values	239
	Advances in Developmental Science and the Birth of the DiscoTest Initiative	241
	DiscoTest: Building the Computer-Based Educational Testing Infrastructure of Tomorrow	243
	New Tools Foster New Values: Revisioning Education and Testing	249
	References	251
	11 Self-regulated Learning with MetaTutor: Advancing the Science of Learning with MetaCognitive Tools	253
	Introduction	253
	Metaphor: MetaCognitive Tools for Enhancing Learning	254
	Theoretical Framework: Self-regulated Learning	257
	Theoretical Assumptions about SRL and MetaTutor	259
	Synthesis of SRL Data on Learning with Hypermedia	260
	MetaTutor: A Hypermedia Learning Environment for Biology	262
	Preliminary Data on SRL with MetaTutor	264
	Implications for the Design of an Adaptive MetaTutor	268
	Summary	270
	References	271
	12 New LearningOld Methods? How E-research Might Change Technology-Enhanced Learning Research	276
	Introduction	276
	Grids, Clouds, and Web 2.0 for Learning Research	277
	Innovation and Inquiry Practices: Distributed Research	280
	ICT for Educational Innovation	281
	A Teacher-Led Inquiry Platform	283
	Process Data Streams and Video Data	285
	When Data is Flowing in Streams	286
	Collaborative Analysis of Video Recordings	289
	Mixed-Method Research: Establishing Trust in Findings	292
	Provenance of Data and Findings	293
	Conclusions	295
	References	296
	13 Designing Higher Education Courses Using Open Educational Resources	300
	Introduction	300
	Online Versus Face-to-Face Teaching	302
	Open Educational Resources	303
	The Process	304
	The Conceptual Framework	305
	Conclusions	306
	References	308
	14 The Evolution of an Automated Reading Strategy Tutor: From the Classroom to a Game-Enhanced Automated System	310
	Introduction	310
	Self-Explanation Reading Training	311
	SERT: One-on-One	312
	SERT Introduction	312
	SERT Practice and Demonstration	312
	Evaluation of One-on-One SERT	313
	SERT: Group Training	314
	Group SERT Introduction	314
	Group SERT Demonstration	314
	Group SERT Practice	315
	Evaluation of Group SERT	315
	Discussion	316
	iSTART	316
	iSTART Modules	317
	Introduction Module	317
	Demonstration Module	319
	Practice Modules	320
	Providing Feedback in iSTART	322
	Evaluations of iSTART	323
	iSTART Discussion	324
	iSTART-ME	325
	iSTART-ME Modules	325
	Extended Practice	326
	MiBoard Game	327
	iSTART-ME Discussion	328
	General Discussion	328
	References	329
	15 Experiences in the Field: The Evolution of a Technology-Oriented Teacher Professional Development Model	334
	Introduction	334
	Technology Context: The Instructional Architect	335
	Pedagogical Context: Problem-Based Learning	337
	Evolution of the Professional Development Models	338
	Model 1: Authentic Problem and Design Centered	338
	Evaluation Findings	339
	Model 2: Problem-Based Learning: Simple to Complex Problems	341
	Evaluation Findings	342
	Model 3: Problem-Based Learning: Authentic Design	344
	Model 3: Evaluation Findings	345
	Long-Term Impact	347
	Conclusion	347
	References	349
	16 A Dialogic Approach to Technology-Enhanced Education for the Global Knowledge Society	351
	The Idea of the Knowledge Society	351
	Thinking Skills for the Knowledge Age	352
	A Dialogic Reconceptualisation of Higher Order Thinking Skills	353
	A Dialogic Foundation for the Design of Educational Technology	355
	Towards a Framework for the Design of Educational Technology that can Teach Thinking as Dialogue Across Difference	356
	Opening Dialogic Spaces	356
	Widening Dialogic Spaces	357
	Deepen Dialogic Space	357
	Teach Content Through Induction into Fields of Dialogue	358
	An Example of Broadening Dialogic Space	359
	ICT and Dialogue Between Media	360
	Blogging as an Example of Induction into and Creation of Dialogic Space	361
	Discussion and Conclusion	362
	References	363
	17 Conceptual Representation EmbodiedINTbreak	366
	Conceptual Representations Embodied in Hypermedia: Promoting Co-Regulated Learning	366
	Hypermedia as a Representational Tool	366
	StructureBehaviorFunction as a Conceptual Representation	367
	Self-regulated and Co-regulated Learning	369
	Method	370
	Participants	370
	Materials	370
	Procedure	371
	Coding and Analysis	372
	Results	374
	Quantitative Results	374
	Qualitative Results	376
	Discussion	378
	References	379
	18 Virtual Worlds for Young People in a Program Context: Lessons from Four Case Studies	382
	Introduction	382
	Zora: A Constructionist Multiuser Virtual Environment	384
	Case Study 1: Multicultural Summer Camp	388
	Case Study 2: ACT	392
	Case Study 3: Transplant Program	396
	Case Study 4: ClubZora: An International Network	401
	Conclusion	405
	References	406
	19 New Technologies, Learning Systems, and Communication: Reducing Complexity in the Educational System	409
	Introduction	409
	Theoretical Framework	410
	Introduction to Complexity in Education	410
	Systems and Environments	411
	Complexity and Contingency	411
	Psychic Systems and Social Systems	412
	Communication	412
	Learning and Teaching	413
	Background	415
	Challenges for the Educational System	417
	Focus 1: Teachers, Their ICT Skills, and Didactical/Pedagogical Skills	417
	Design of Environments for Teaching	420
	Focus 2: Students' Learning with Media and Technology	421
	Focus 3: Management and Technology Issues	423
	Further Researchan Invitation	424
	References	424
	Part III Collaboration and New Science of Learning	428
	20 Fostering Higher Levels of Learning Using Diverse Instructional Strategies with Internet Communication Tools	429
	Introduction	429
	Progressive Pedagogies	430
	Guiding Theoretical Framework: The Practical Inquiry Model	431
	Integrating Progressive Pedagogies into the Learning Experience	435
	Quantitative Content Analysis)	436
	Ecological Validity of the Coders	442
	Discussion	442
	Conclusions	444
	References	445
	21 Windows into Teaching and Learning Through Social Annotation Practices	448
	HyLighter	448
	Theoretical Underpinnings	451
	Interactive Reading	453
	Articles	453
	Unpublished Document	457
	Case Studies	459
	Outcomes	460
	Collaborative Concept Mapping	461
	Hypermedia-Enhanced Lesson Plans	465
	Collaboratively Developed Lesson Plans	466
	Limitations	469
	Conclusions	469
	References	470
	22 Orchestrating Learning in a One-to-One Technology Classroom	472
	Introduction	472
	CSCL Scripts in Face-to-Face Classroom Learning	473
	Learning Design and Delivery Tools for One-to-One Scenarios	474
	What We Mean by One-to-One Classroom Orchestration and a Proposed Framework	475
	Example Scenarios for the One-to-One Classroom	476
	A Scenarios Designer for a One-to-One Technology Classroom	478
	SceDer Authoring and COML	479
	GS-SceDer Learning Environment: A Learning Space for One-to-One Scenarios	481
	Results	483
	Conclusion	485
	References	486
	23 Designing Online Learning Environments for Professional Development	489
	Introduction	489
	Conceptual Framework	490
	Exploring the Foundations of Design with Digital Media	491
	Overview of Course Design	493
	Design Elements	494
	Participants	495
	Data Sources and Analysis	495
	Emerging Issues	496
	Teachers' Conceptions of Classroom Inquiry	496
	Teachers' Self-Understandings as Agents of Change	498
	The Problem of Validity	500
	Effectiveness of the Course Design	501
	Conclusions	502
	References	502
	24 Knowledge Building/Knowledge Forum:The Transformation of Classroom Discourse	505
	Background	505
	Classroom Discourse	505
	Online Discourse	507
	Methodology	508
	Participants	509
	Data Analysis	511
	Results	512
	An Ongoing Questioning Process	512
	An Emerging Explanatory Process	515
	Discussion, Pedagogical Implications, and Future Steps	517
	References	519
	25 Digital Video Tools in the Classroom: How to Support Meaningful Collaboration and Critical Advanced Thinking of Students?	522
	Introduction	522
	Digital Video in Education	523
	Tools and Tasks for Learning with Digital Videoan Integrated Approach	525
	Video Tools to Guide Collaboration	525
	Tools for Collaborative Observation and Analysis	526
	Tools for Collaborative Hypervideo Structuring	527
	Collaborative Visual Design---a Cognitive Framework	529
	Instructional Framing of Collaborative Visual Design: Approaches, Results, Problems	532
	Pursuing Instructional Goals and Developing a Student-Centered Learning Task	533
	Integration into Noisy Classroom SettingsInitial Results from a Field Study	535
	Conclusions	537
	References	538
	26 Technology for Classroom Orchestration	543
	Introduction	543
	It Works Well (In My Class)	543
	The Orchestration Model	545
	Teacher-Centrism	546
	Cross-Plane Integration	548
	Sequentiality	549
	Time Management	550
	Physicality	551
	The Ecosystem Model	552
	Species	552
	Selection	553
	Legacy	554
	Sustainability	555
	The SWISH Model and the ManyScripts Environment	555
	The ''SWISH'' model	555
	The ManyScripts Environment	557
	Design Factors	557
	The Erfahrraum Model and the TinkerLamp Environment	559
	The ''Erfahrraum'' Model	559
	The TinkerLamp Environment	560
	Design Factors	562
	The Shelve and Lantern Environments	563
	The Recitation Section Model	563
	The Lantern Environment	563
	Design Factors	564
	Conclusions	564
	Implications for Learning Technologies	564
	Implications for Design-Based Research	566
	Orchestration as Constraints Management	566
	Final Word	567
	References	568
	27 Knowledge Building in Society 2.0: Challengesand Opportunities	571
	Introduction	571
	Knowledge Building	572
	Web 2.0 and Knowledge Building	573
	Social Learning Theories Supporting Web 2.0	574
	Learning Through Thinking and Reflection	574
	Learning Through Communication, Participation, and Interaction	576
	Connecting Two Strands of Theories---Agency and Collective Cognitive Responsibility	577
	Applications of Web 2.0 Technologies	577
	Blogs	577
	Wikis	579
	Social Bookmarking/Tagging	580
	Conclusion	580
	References	582
	28 Innovations in Culturally Based Science Education Through Partnerships and Community	586
	Introduction	586
	Background	586
	Challenges to and the Need for Innovation	587
	Innovation: Partnerships and Communities	589
	Research in Indigenous Communities: Background and Organization	590
	The Design Process: The Early Stages	591
	Community-Based Design: A Closer Look	595
	Partnership in Community: Some Consequences	602
	Discussion	603
	Conclusions	606
	References	607
	29 New Science of Learning: Exploring the Future of Education	610
	Introduction	610
	Cognition and New Science of Learning	610
	Computer and New Science of Learning	612
	Collaboration and New Science of Learning	615
	Conclusion	618
	References	619
	Subject Index	621