Preface	5
	Foreword	7
	Contents	9
	1 Computer-Generated Plants	13
	1.1 Modeling of Virtual Landscapes	15
	1.2 Rendering Issues	17
	1.3 Applications	18
	2 Plants	21
	2.1 The Shoot Axis	23
	2.2 Budding	25
	2.3 Branching Types	26
	2.4 Spatial Division	27
	2.5 Tropisms	28
	2.6 Architectural Analysis of Trees	29
	2.7 Leaves	31
	2.8 Geobotanical Description Methods	33
	2.9 Description Methods for Vegetation	36
	3 Some Mathematics	39
	3.1 Geometrical and Topological Models	39
	3.2 Branching Structures	40
	3.3 Trees as Fractal Objects	42
	3.4 Phyllotaxis	46
	3.5 Description of Plant Populations	48
	3.6 Developmental Models	50
	4 Procedural Modeling	55
	4.1 Cellular Automata	56
	4.2 A First Continuous Model	57
	4.3 Three-Dimensional Procedural Models	58
	4.4 Regulation of the Branching Process	60
	4.5 Generation Using Particle Systems	61
	4.6 A Fractal Tree Model	61
	4.7 Geometric Modeling	63
	4.8 An Approach Based on Budding	64
	4.9 A Combinatorial Approach	66
	4.10 Tree Modeling Using Strands	68
	4.11 Approximate Modeling	70
	4.12 Growth in Voxels	70
	4.13 Modeling of Phyllotaxis	71
	4.14 Remaining Questions	73
	5 Rule-Based Modeling	75
	5.1 Rewriting Systems	76
	5.2 Lindenmayer Systems	77
	5.3 Branching Structures	79
	5.4 Three-Dimensional Commands	80
	5.5 Stochastic and Parameterized Systems	82
	5.6 Context-Sensitive Systems	84
	5.7 Modeling of Phyllotaxis	86
	5.8 Animation of L-Systems	87
	5.9 Interactions of Plants and the Environment	88
	5.10 Use of Position Information	90
	5.11 Iterated Function Systems	91
	5.12 Object Instancing	94
	5.13 CSG-Based Modeling	96
	5.14 Categorizing the Methods	98
	6 Rule-Based Object Production	101
	6.1 Algorithmic Multiplication	102
	6.2 Component Types	103
	6.3 Combination of Components	109
	6.4 Examples	110
	6.5 Shape Modeling	113
	6.6 Animation	116
	6.7 Resume	118
	7 Modeling Terrain	125
	7.1 Brownian Motion	126
	7.2 From Functions to Terrain	129
	7.3 Erosion	130
	7.4 Interaction with Fractal Terrain	135
	8 Modeling Vegetation	137
	8.1 Direct Speci.cation of Distributions	140
	8.2 Simulation of a Plant Population	146
	8.3 Simulation of a Plant Association	147
	8.4 Reduction of the Geometric Data	148
	8.5 Instancing of Plant Populations	152
	8.6 Modeling of a Sample Scene	158
	9 Rendering	161
	9.1 Local Lighting Models	164
	9.2 The Rendering Equation	165
	9.3 Radiosity	166
	9.4 Raytracing	167
	9.5 Further Rendering Methods	168
	9.6 Photorealistic Renditions of Leaves	169
	9.7 Rendering Complex Scenes	174
	9.8 Plant Images Using Raytracing	179
	9.9 Plant Images Using Radiosity	182
	9.10 When Do Computer Images Appear Real?	182
	10 Level-of-Detail	193
	10.1 LOD Methods for Smooth Surfaces	194
	10.2 Static LOD Methods for Trees	195
	10.3 Dynamic Point-Based Representation	198
	10.4 Dynamic Polygonal Representation	200
	10.5 Point- and Line-Based Rendering	203
	11 Landscape Sketches	213
	11.1 Nonphotorealistic Rendering	214
	11.2 Traditional Drawings of Plants	218
	11.3 Synthetic Plant Drawings	223
	11.4 Rendering of Cross-Hatching	230
	11.5 Resume	236
	12 Media Art	239
	12.1 William Latham	240
	12.2 Karl Sims	243
	12.3 Christa Sommerer and Laurent Mignonneau	251
	12.4 Bill Viola, Tree of Knowledge	255
	12.5 SonoMorphis	257
	A Practical Plant Modeling	263
	A.1 The Xfrog Modeling Environment	263
	A.2 Modeling a Flower	265
	A.3 Modeling a Tree	270
	B Glossary	277
	Figure credits	283
	Bibliography	287
	Index	299