Preface	8
	Contents	11
	Authors	21
	1 Introduction	24
	1.1 Background	24
	1.2 Introduction	25
	1.2.1 Precision Engineering	25
	1.2.2 Micromilling and Microdrilling	26
	1.3 Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS)	28
	1.3.1 An Example: Microphenomenon in Electrophotography	29
	1.4 Microelectronics Fabrication Methods	30
	1.4.1 Bulk Micromachining	31
	1.4.2 Surface Micromachining	31
	1.5 Microinstrumentation	32
	1.6 Micromechatronics	32
	1.7 Nanofinishing	33
	1.8 Optically Variable Device	33
	1.9 MECS	34
	1.10 Space Micropropulsion	34
	1.11 e-Beam Nanolithography	35
	1.12 Nanotechnology	35
	1.13 Carbon Nanotubes and Structures	36
	1.14 Molecular Logic Gates	37
	1.15 Microdevices as Nanolevel Biosensors	38
	1.16 Crosslinking in C60 and Derivatisation	39
	1.17 Fuel Cell	40
	1.18 References	40
	2 Principles of MEMS and MOEMS	42
	2.1 Introduction	42
	2.2 Driving Principles for Actuation	43
	2.3 Fabrication Process	44
	2.4 Mechanical MEMS	46
	2.4.1 Mechanical sensors	46
	2.4.2 Accelerometer, Cantilever and Capacitive Measurement	47
	2.4.3 Microphone	48
	2.4.4 Gyroscope	49
	2.4.5 Mechanical Actuators	49
	2.5 Thermal MEMS	51
	2.5.1 Thermometry	52
	2.5.2 Data Storage Applications	53
	2.5.3 Microhotplate Gas Sensors	53
	2.5.4 Thermoactuators	54
	2.6 Magnetic MEMS	54
	2.7 MOEMS	58
	2.8 Spatial Light Modulator	60
	2.9 Digital Micromirror Device	61
	2.10 Grating Light Valve (GLV)	63
	2.11 References	65
	3 Laser Technology in Micromanufacturing	68
	3.1. Introduction	68
	3.2. Generation of Laser Light	68
	3.3 Properties of Laser Light	72
	3.3.1 Monochromacity	73
	3.3.2 Directionality	73
	3.3.3 Brightness	74
	3.3.4 Coherence	74
	3.3.5 Spatial Profile	74
	3.3.6 Temporal Profile	75
	3.4 Practical Lasers	75
	3.5 Laser Technology in Micromanufacturing	77
	3.5.1 Background	77
	3.5.2 Absorption and Reflection of Laser Light	77
	3.5.3 Application Technology Fundamentals	79
	3.6 References	84
	4 Soft Geometrical Error Compensation Methods Using Laser Interferometer	86
	4.1 Introduction	86
	4.2 Overview of Geometrical Error Calibration	87
	4.2.1 Error Measurement System	89
	4.2.2 Accuracy Assessment	90
	4.3 Geometrical Error Compensation Schemes	91
	4.3.1 Look-up Table for Geometrical Errors	92
	4.3.2 Parametric Model for Geometrical Errors	93
	4.4 Experimental Results	96
	4.4.1 Error Approximations	97
	4.4.2 Linear Errors	97
	4.4.3 Straightness Errors	100
	4.4.4 Angular Errors	100
	4.4.5 Squareness Error	101
	4.4.2 Assessment	102
	4.5 Conclusions	102
	4.6 Reference	104
	5 Characterising Etching Processes in Bulk Micromachining	106
	5.1 Introduction	106
	5.2 Wet Bulk Micromachining (WBM)	106
	5.3 Review	107
	5.4 Crystallography and its Effects	108
	5.4.1 An Example	109
	5.5 Silicon as Substrate and Structural Material	110
	5.5.1 Silicon as a Substrate	110
	5.5.2 Silicon as Structural Material	111
	5.5.3 Stress and Strain	111
	5.5.4 Thermal Properties of Silicon	115
	5.6 Wet Etching Process	115
	5.6.1 Isotropic Etchants	116
	5.6.2 Reaction Phenomena	116
	5.6.3 Isotropic Etch Curves	117
	5.6.4 Masking	119
	5.6.5 DD Etchants	120
	5.7 Anisotropic Etching	120
	5.7.1 Anisotropic Etchants	121
	5.7.2 Masking for Anisotropic Etchants	121
	5.8 Etching Control: The Etch-stop	122
	5.8.1 Boron Diffusion Etch-stop	122
	5.8.2 Electrochemical Etch-stop	123
	5.8.3 Thin Films and SOI Etch-stop	124
	5.9 Problems with Etching in Bulk Micromachining	125
	5.9.1 RE Consumption	125
	5.9.2 Corner Compensation	126
	5.10 Conclusions	127
	5.11 References	127
	6 Features of Surface Micromachining and Wafer Bonding Process	130
	6.1 Introduction	130
	6.2 Photolithography	131
	6.3 Surface Micromachining	134
	6.3.1 Bulk versus Surface Micromachining	135
	6.4 Characterising the Surface Micromachining Process	136
	6.4.1 Isolation Layer	136
	6.4.2 Sacrificial Layer	137
	6.4.3 Structural Material	137
	6.4.4 Selective Etching	138
	6.5 Properties	139
	6.5.1 Adhesion	140
	6.5.2 Stress	141
	6.5.3 Stiction	144
	6.6 Wafer Bonding	145
	6.6.1 Anodic Bonding	146
	6.6.2 Fusion Bonding	147
	6.7 Summary	148
	6.8 References	150
	7 Micromanufacturing for Document Security: Optically Variable Devices	154
	7.1 Preamble	154
	7.2 Introduction	154
	7.3 OVD Foil Microstructures	156
	7.3.1 The Security Hologram	156
	7.3.2 The Kinegram	157
	7.3.3 The Catpix Electron Beam Lithography Microstructure	160
	7.3.4 Structural Stability	161
	7.3.5 The Pixelgram Palette Concept	162
	7.3.6 The Exelgram Track based OVD Microstructure	164
	7.3.7 Covert Image Micrographic Security Features	167
	7.3.8 Kinegram and Exelgram: Comparison	168
	7.3.9 Vectorgram Image Multiplexing	168
	7.3.10 Interstitial Groove Element Modulation	171
	7.4 Generic OVD Microstructures	172
	7.4.1 Optically Variable Ink Technology	173
	7.4.2 Diffractive Data Foils	174
	7.4.3 Biometric OVD Technology	177
	7.5 NanoCODES	180
	7.5.1 The Micromirror OVD	182
	7.5.2 Origination of a Micromirror OVD	183
	7.5.3 Summary of Micromirror OVD Optical Effects	187
	7.6 Conclusions	189
	7.7 References	190
	8 Nanofinishing Techniques	194
	8.1 Introduction	194
	8.2 Traditional Finishing Processes	196
	8.2.1 Grinding	196
	8.2.2 Lapping	196
	8.2.3 Honing	197
	8.3 Advanced Finishing Processes (AFPs)	197
	8.3.1 Abrasive Flow Machining (AFM)	198
	8.3.2 Magnetic Abrasive Finishing (MAF)	201
	8.3.3 Magnetorheological Finishing (MRF)	203
	8.3.4 Magnetorheological Abrasive Flow Finishing (MRAFF)	206
	8.3.5 Magnetic Float Polishing (MFP)	211
	8.3.6 Elastic Emission Machining (EEM)	212
	8.3.7 Ion Beam Machining (IBM)	213
	8.3.8 Chemical Mechanical Polishing (CMP)	215
	8.4 References	216
	9 Micro and Nanotechnology Applications for Space Micropropulsion	220
	9.1 Introduction	220
	9.2 Subsystems and Devices for Miniaturised Spacecrafts Micropropulsion	224
	9.3 Propulsion Systems	230
	9.3.1 Solid Propellant	231
	9.3.2 Cold-Gas	231
	9.3.3 Colloid Thrusters	231
	9.3.4 Warm-Gas	231
	9.3.5 Monopropellant and Bipropellant Systems	231
	9.3.6 Regenerative-Pressurisation Cycles	232
	9.3.7 ADCS	232
	9.4 Realisation of a Cold-Gas Microthruster	232
	9.4.1 Gas- and Fluid Dynamics	233
	9.4.2 Prototyping	234
	9.5 Conclusions	240
	9.6 References	240
	10 Carbon Nanotube Production and Applications: Basis of Nanotechnology	242
	10.1 Introduction	242
	10.2 Nanotechnology and Carbon Nanotube Promises	242
	10.3 Growing Interest in Carbon Nanotube	244
	10.4 Structure and Properties of Carbon Nanotubes	246
	10.5 Production of Carbon Nanotube	248
	10.5.1 Chemical Vapour Deposition	249
	10.5.2 Arc Discharge	250
	10.5.3 Laser Ablation	251
	10.5.4 Mechanisms of Growth	252
	10.5.5 Purification of Carbon Nanotube	253
	10.6 Applications of Carbon Nanotubes	254
	10.6.1 Electrical Transport of Carbon Nanotubes for FET	254
	10.6.2 Computers	256
	10.6.3 CNT Nanodevices for Biomedical Application	257
	10.6.4 X-Ray Equipment	258
	10.6.5 CNTs for Nanomechanic Actuator and Artificial Muscles	259
	10.6.6 Fuel Cells	260
	10.6.7 Membrane Electrode Assembly	261
	10.6.8 Mechanical and Electrical Reinforcement of Bipolar Plates with CNTs	262
	10.6.9 Hydrogen Storage in CNTs	263
	10.7 References	264
	11 Carbon based Nanostructures	270
	11.1 Introduction	270
	11.2 History of Fullerenes	270
	11.3 Structure of Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)	271
	11.3.1 Y-shaped	271
	11.3.2 Double Helical	275
	11.3.3 Bamboo-like Structure	275
	11.3.4 Hierarchical Morphology Structure	275
	11.3.5 Ring Structured MWCNTs	275
	11.3.6 Cone Shape End Caps of MWCNTs	275
	11.4 Structure of Fullerenes	276
	11.4.1 Structure of C48 Fullerenes	276
	11.4.2 Toroidal Fullerenes	276
	11.4.3 Structure of C60, C59, C58, C57	276
	11.4.4 The Smaller Fullerene C50	277
	11.5 Structure of Carbon Nanoballs (CNBs)	279
	11.6 Structure of Carbon Nanofibers (CNFs)	280
	11.6.1 Hexagonal CNFs	280
	11.6.2 Corn-shaped CNFs	280
	11.6.3 Helical CNFs	280
	11.7 Porous Carbon	281
	11.8 Properties of Carbon Nanostructures	282
	11.8.1 Molecular Properties	282
	11.8.2 Electronic Properties	282
	11.8.3 Optical Properties	282
	11.8.4 Mechanical Properties	283
	11.8.5 Periodic Properties	283
	11.9 Synthesis	284
	11.9.1 Carbon Nanotubes	284
	11.9.2 Fullerenes	285
	11.9.3 Nanoballs	286
	11.9.4 Nanofibers	286
	11.10 Potential Applications of Nanostructures	288
	11.10.1 Energy Storage	288
	11.10.2 Hydrogen Storage	288
	11.10.3 Lithium Intercalation	289
	11.10.4 Electrochemical Supercapacitors	290
	11.10.5 Molecular Electronics with CNTs	291
	11.11 Composite Materials	293
	11.12 Summary	294
	11.13 References	294
	12 Molecular Logic Gates	298
	12.1 Introduction	298
	12.2 Logic Gates	298
	12.3 Fluorescence based Molecular Logic Gates	300
	12.4 Combinational Logic Circuits	308
	12.5 Reconfigurable Molecular Logic	309
	12.6 Absorption based Molecular Logic Gates	310
	12.7 Molecular Logic Gates: Electronic Conductance	316
	12.8 Conclusions	318
	12.9 References	318
	13 Nanomechanical Cantilever Devices for Biological Sensors	322
	13.1 Introduction	322
	13.2 Principles	323
	13.3 Static Deformation Approach	324
	13.4 Resonance Mode Approach	325
	13.5 Heat Detection Approach	328
	13.6 Microfabrication	329
	13.6.1 Si-based Cantilever	329
	13.6.2 Piezoresistive Integrated Cantilever	330
	13.6.3 Piezoelectric Integrated Cantilever	331
	13.7 Measurement and Readout Technique	332
	13.7.1 Optical Method	332
	13.7.2 Interferometry	333
	13.7.3 Piezoresistive Method	333
	13.7.4 Capacitance Method	334
	13.7.5 Piezoelectric Method	334
	13.8 Biological Sensing	336
	13.8.1 DNA Detection	336
	13.8.2 Protein Detection	338
	13.8.3 Cell Detection	340
	13.9 Conclusions	341
	13.10 References	342
	14 Micro Energy and Chemical Systems (MECS) and Multiscale Fabrication	346
	14.1 Introduction	346
	14.2 Micro Energy and Chemical Systems	350
	14.2.1 Heat and Mass Transfer in MECS Devices	351
	14.2.2 Applications of MECS Technology	351
	14.3 MECS Fabrication	353
	14.3.1 Challenges	353
	14.3.2 Feature Sizes	354
	14.3.3 Microlamination	355
	14.4 Dimensional Control in Microlamination	357
	14.4.1 Effects of Patterning on Microchannel Array Performance	358
	14.4.2 Theory	359
	14.4.3 Microchannel Fabrication	360
	14.4.4 Results	361
	14.5 Sources of Warpage in Microchannel Arrays	364
	14.5.1 Analysis	366
	14.5.2 Results	369
	14.6 Effects of Registration and Bonding on Microchannel Array Performance	370
	14.7 Geometrical Constraints in Microchannel Arrays	371
	14.8 Economics of Microlamination	374
	14.9 References	375
	15 Sculptured Thin Films	380
	15.1 Introduction	380
	15.2 STF Growth	381
	15.2.1 Experimental and Phenomenological	381
	15.2.2 Computer Modeling	385
	15. 3 Optical Properties	386
	15.3.1 Theory	386
	15.3.2 Characteristic Behavior	393
	15.4 Applications	396
	15.4.1 Optical	396
	15.4.2 Chemical	398
	15.4.3 Electronics	398
	15.4.4 Biological	398
	15.5 Concluding Remarks	399
	15.6 References	400
	16 e-Beam Nanolithography Integrated with Nanoassembly: Precision Chemical Engineering	406
	16.1 Introduction	406
	16.2 Electron-Beam Radiation	407
	16.2.1 Polymeric Materials	407
	16.2.2 Molecular Materials	408
	16.3 Self-Assembled Monolayers	410
	16.4 Summary and Outlook	414
	16.5 References	415
	17 Nanolithography in the Evanescent Near Field	420
	17.1 Introduction	420
	17.2 Historical Development	421
	17.3 Principles of ENFOL	423
	17.4 Mask Requirements and Fabrication	424
	17.5 Pattern Definition	425
	17.5.1 Exposure Conditions	425
	17.5.2 Resist Requirements	426
	the Diffraction Limit	426
	17.6. Pattern Transfer	428
	17.6.1 Subtractive Pattern Transfer	428
	17.6.2 Additive Pattern Transfer	429
	17.7 Simulations	430
	17.7.1 Simulation Methods and Models	432
	17.7.2 Intensity Distribution	433
	17.7.3 Depth of Field (DOF)	434
	17.7.4 Exposure Variations due to Edge Enhancements	436
	17.8 Nanolithography using Surface Plasmons	437
	17.8.1 Evanescent Interferometric Lithography (EIL)	438
	17.8.2 Planar Lens Lithography (PLL)	439
	17.8.3 Surface Plasmon Enhanced Contact Lithography (SPECL)	442
	17.9 Conclusions	444
	17.10 References	445
	18 Nanotechnology for Fuel Cell Applications	448
	18.1 Current State of the Knowledge and Needs	448
	18.2 Nanoparticles in Heterogeneous Catalysis	450
	18.3 Oxygen Electroreduction Reaction on Carbon-Supported Platinum Catalysts	452
	18.4 Carbon Nanotubes as Catalyst Supports	455
	18.5 Concluding Remarks	460
	18.6 References	461
	19 Derivatisation of Carbon Nanotubes with Amines: A Solvent-free Technique	464
	19.1 Introduction	464
	19.2 Experimental Design	465
	19.3 Direct Amidation of Carboxylic Functionalities on Oxidised SWNT Tips	466
	19.4 Direct Amine Addition to Closed Caps and Wall Defects of Pristine MWNTs	468
	19.5 Conclusions	473
	19.6 References	473
	20 Chemical Crosslinking in C60 Thin Films	476
	20.1 Introduction	476
	20.2 Experiment	477
	20.2.1 Analytical Instruments	477
	20.2.2 Deposition of Fullerene Films	478
	20.2.3 Reaction with 1,8-Diaminooctane	478
	20.3 Results and Discussion	478
	20.3.1 (1,8)-Diaminooctane-derivatised C60 Powder	478
	20.3.2 1,8-Diaminooctane-derivatised C60 Films	479
	Index	486